The Roman Empire was one of the most powerful and influential empires in world history, having conquered vast territories and subjugated numerous peoples under its rule. However, one region that proved to be a significant challenge to the Romans was Scotland. The Roman armies attempted to conquer Scotland three times but were ultimately unsuccessful, and the history of Roman Scotland is a story of invasion and withdrawal.
The Roman conquest of Scotland began in earnest in the 70s AD, and under the emperor Vespasian and his sons, the governor Agricola led the legions deep into Caledonia. The Roman armies won a major battle at Mons Graupius, somewhere in northeast Scotland, but within a few years, they abandoned their conquests and pulled back. They first withdrew to more secure territory in southern Scotland, and then to northern England between the river Tyne and the Solway Firth, where they built the famous Hadrian's Wall.
Hadrian's successor, Antoninus Pius, ordered the army to push north again, occupying Scotland as far as Perth and building another wall, the Antonine Wall, between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. However, this too was short-lived, and before Pius's death, plans were made to abandon Scotland and refortify Hadrian's Wall. This remained the northern frontier, apart from a brief period in the early third century when the northern tribes were causing considerable trouble. The emperor Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla led a huge army north to try to crush the troublemakers, but they eventually abandoned Scotland and returned to Rome.
Scholars still debate why the Romans were unable to conquer Scotland. The truth is likely a mixture of all the possibilities, and the influence of any one factor varied over time. One possible reason is the geography of Scotland, which is dominated by rugged terrain and difficult to navigate. This made it challenging for the Roman armies, who were used to fighting on open plains, to engage in effective military campaigns.
Another possible reason is the resilience and fighting skills of the Scottish tribes. The Roman army fought by different rules from the locals, coming in overwhelming force armed to the teeth. If local leaders sided with the Roman world, they were absorbed, and if they resisted, they were crushed. However, the Scottish tribes refused to be assimilated into the Roman Empire, and their guerrilla tactics made it difficult for the Romans to hold on to conquered territories.